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<title>Hittite language</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Hittite language</span></span>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Old Hittite" redirects here. For the Old Hittite Kingdom, see <a href="Hittites#Old_Kingdom" title="Hittites">Hittites § Old Kingdom</a>.</div>

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</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Hittite</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Nesite</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;"><span title="Hittite-language text"><span lang="hit"><span style="font-size:125%;font-family:UllikummiA" lang="und-Xsux">𒌷𒉌𒅆𒇷</span></span></span> <span title="Hittite-language romanization"><i lang="hit-Latn">nešili</i></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Region</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Era</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">attested 17th to 12th centuries BC</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a>

<a href="Anatolian_languages" title="Anatolian languages">Anatolian</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><b>Hittite</b></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="Hittite_cuneiform" title="Hittite cuneiform">Hittite cuneiform</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="ISO_639-2" title="ISO 639-2">ISO 639-2</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><span class=""><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?code_ID=189">hit</a></span></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">Variously:<br><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/hit" class="extiw external" title="iso639-3:hit">hit</a></code> – Hittite<br><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/oht" class="extiw external" title="iso639-3:oht">oht</a></code> – Old Hittite<br><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/htx" class="extiw external" title="iso639-3:htx">htx</a></code> – Middle Hittite<br><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/nei" class="extiw external" title="iso639-3:nei">nei</a></code> – New Hittite</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="Linguist_List" title="Linguist List">Linguist List</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200101010101/http://multitree.org/codes/hit">hit</a></code> Hittite</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"> </th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200101010101/http://multitree.org/codes/oht">oht</a></code> Old Hittite</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"> </th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200101010101/http://multitree.org/codes/htx">htx</a></code> Middle Hittite</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"> </th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200101010101/http://multitree.org/codes/nei">nei</a></code> New Hittite</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><i><a href="Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></i></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/hitt1242">hitt1242</a></code></td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">

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<p><b>Hittite</b> (<a href="Hittite_cuneiform" title="Hittite cuneiform">Hittite cuneiform</a>: <span lang="hit"><span style="font-size:125%;font-family:UllikummiA" lang="und-Xsux">𒌷𒉌𒅆𒇷</span></span>, <small>romanized: </small><span title="Hittite-language romanization"><i lang="hit-Latn">nešili</i></span>, <small><a href="Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> </small>'in the language of <a href="K%C3%BCltepe" title="Kültepe">Neša</a>',<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <span title="Hittite-language romanization"><i lang="hit-Latn">nešumnili</i></span> <abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr><span style="white-space: nowrap;"> </span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span><span class="gloss-text">in the language of the people of Neša</span><span class="gloss-quot">'</span>), also known as <b>Nesite</b> (Nešite/Neshite, Nessite), is an extinct <a href="Indo-European_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-European language">Indo-European language</a> that was spoken by the <a href="Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittites</a>, a people of <a href="Bronze_Age_Anatolia" class="mw-redirect" title="Bronze Age Anatolia">Bronze Age Anatolia</a> who created an empire centred on <a href="Hattusa" title="Hattusa">Hattusa</a>, as well as parts of the northern <a href="Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> and <a href="Upper_Mesopotamia" title="Upper Mesopotamia">Upper Mesopotamia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYakubovich2020221–237_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYakubovich2020221–237-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The language, now long extinct, is attested in <a href="Hittite_cuneiform" title="Hittite cuneiform">cuneiform</a>, in records dating from the 17th<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<a href="Anitta_text" class="mw-redirect" title="Anitta text">Anitta text</a>) to the 13th centuries BC, with isolated Hittite loanwords and numerous personal names appearing in an <a href="Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Old Assyrian</a> context from as early as the 20th century BC, making it the earliest attested use of the Indo-European languages.

</p><p>By the <a href="Late_Bronze_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Bronze Age">Late Bronze Age</a>, Hittite had started losing ground to its close relative <a href="Luwian_language" title="Luwian language">Luwian</a>. It appears that Luwian was the most widely spoken language in the Hittite capital of Hattusa during the 13th century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the collapse of the <a href="Hittite_New_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Hittite New Kingdom">Hittite New Kingdom</a> during the more general <a href="Late_Bronze_Age_collapse" title="Late Bronze Age collapse">Late Bronze Age collapse</a>, Luwian emerged in the early <a href="Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a> as the main language of the so-called <a href="Syro-Hittite_states" title="Syro-Hittite states">Syro-Hittite states</a>, in southwestern <a href="Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> and northern <a href="Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>.

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<p><i>Hittite</i> is the modern scholarly name for the language, based on the identification of the Hatti (<i>Ḫatti</i>) kingdom with the <a href="Biblical_Hittites" title="Biblical Hittites">Biblical Hittites</a> (<a href="Biblical_Hebrew_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical Hebrew language">Biblical Hebrew</a>: *<span lang="hbo" dir="rtl">חתים</span> <span title="Biblical Hebrew-language text"><i lang="hbo-Latn">Ḥittim</i></span>), although that name appears to have been applied incorrectly:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryce201273_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce201273-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term <i><a href="Hattians" title="Hattians">Hattian</a></i> refers to the indigenous people who preceded the Hittites, speaking a non-Indo-European <a href="Hattic_language" title="Hattic language">Hattic language</a>.

</p><p>In multilingual texts found in Hittite locations, passages written in Hittite are preceded by the adverb <span title="Hittite-language text"><i lang="hit-Latn">nesili</i></span> (or <span title="Hittite-language text"><i lang="hit-Latn">nasili</i></span>, <span title="Hittite-language text"><i lang="hit-Latn">nisili</i></span>), "in the [speech] of <a href="Ne%C5%A1a" class="mw-redirect" title="Neša">Neša</a> (Kaneš)", an important city during the early stages of the <a href="Hittite_Old_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Hittite Old Kingdom">Hittite Old Kingdom</a>. In one case, the label is <i>Kanisumnili</i>, "in the [speech] of the people of Kaneš".<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Although the <a href="Hittite_New_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Hittite New Kingdom">Hittite New Kingdom</a> had people from many diverse ethnic and linguistic backgrounds, the Hittite language was used in most secular written texts. In spite of various arguments over the appropriateness of the term,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGlatz202035_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGlatz202035-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Hittite</i> remains the most current term because of convention and the strength of association with the <a href="Biblical_Hittites" title="Biblical Hittites">Biblical Hittites</a>. The <a href="Endonymic" class="mw-redirect" title="Endonymic">endonymic</a> term <span title="Hittite-language text"><i lang="hit-Latn">nešili</i></span>, and its Anglicized variants (<i>Nesite</i>, <i>Nessite</i>, <i>Neshite</i>), have never caught on.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHout20112_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHout20112-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2></div>

<p>Hittite is one of the Anatolian languages and is known from <a href="Hittite_cuneiform" title="Hittite cuneiform">cuneiform</a> tablets and inscriptions that were erected by the Hittite kings. The script formerly known as "Hieroglyphic Hittite" is now termed Hieroglyphic Luwian. The Anatolian branch also includes <a href="Cuneiform_Luwian" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuneiform Luwian">Cuneiform Luwian</a>, <a href="Hieroglyphic_Luwian" class="mw-redirect" title="Hieroglyphic Luwian">Hieroglyphic Luwian</a>, <a href="Palaic_language" title="Palaic language">Palaic</a>, <a href="Lycian_language" title="Lycian language">Lycian</a>, <a href="Milyan_language" title="Milyan language">Milyan</a>, <a href="Lydian_language" title="Lydian language">Lydian</a>, <a href="Carian_language" title="Carian language">Carian</a>, <a href="Pisidian_language" title="Pisidian language">Pisidian</a>, <a href="Sidetic_language" title="Sidetic language">Sidetic</a> and <a href="Isaurian_language" title="Isaurian language">Isaurian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Unlike most other Indo-European languages, Hittite does not distinguish between masculine and feminine grammatical gender, and it lacks subjunctive and <a href="Optative_mood" title="Optative mood">optative moods</a> as well as aspect. Various hypotheses have been formulated to explain these differences.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Some <a href="Linguists" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguists">linguists</a>, most notably <a href="Edgar_H._Sturtevant" class="mw-redirect" title="Edgar H. Sturtevant">Edgar H. Sturtevant</a> and <a href="Warren_Cowgill" title="Warren Cowgill">Warren Cowgill</a>, have argued that Hittite should be classified as a <a href="Sister_language" title="Sister language">sister language</a> to <a href="Proto-Indo-European" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-European">Proto-Indo-European</a>, rather than as a <a href="Daughter_language" title="Daughter language">daughter language</a>. Their <a href="Indo-Hittite" title="Indo-Hittite">Indo-Hittite</a> hypothesis is that the parent language (Indo-Hittite) lacked the features that are absent in Hittite as well, and that Proto-Indo-European later innovated them.

</p><p>Other linguists, however, prefer the <i>Schwund</i> ("loss") Hypothesis in which Hittite (or Anatolian) came from Proto-Indo-European, with its full range of features, but the features became simplified in Hittite.

</p><p>According to <a href="Craig_Melchert" title="Craig Melchert">Craig Melchert</a>, the current tendency (as of 2012) is to suppose that Proto-Indo-European evolved and that the "prehistoric speakers" of Anatolian became isolated "from the rest of the PIE speech community, so as not to share in some common innovations".<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hittite and the other <a href="Anatolian_languages" title="Anatolian languages">Anatolian languages</a> split off from <a href="Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</a> at an early stage. Hittite thus preserved archaisms that would be lost in the other Indo-European languages.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Hittite has many loanwords, particularly religious vocabulary from the non-Indo-European <a href="Hurrian_language" title="Hurrian language">Hurrian</a> and <a href="Hattic_language" title="Hattic language">Hattic</a> languages. The latter was the language of the <a href="Hattians" title="Hattians">Hattians</a>, the local inhabitants of the land of <a href="Hattians" title="Hattians">Hatti</a> before they were absorbed or displaced by the <a href="Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittites</a>. Sacred and magical texts from <a href="Hattusa" title="Hattusa">Hattusa</a> were often written in Hattic, <a href="Hurrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Hurrian">Hurrian</a> and <a href="Luwian_language" title="Luwian language">Luwian</a> even after Hittite had become the norm for other writings.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<p>The Hittite language has traditionally been stratified into Old Hittite (OH), Middle Hittite (MH) and New Hittite or Neo-Hittite (NH, not to be confused with the <a href="Polysemic" class="mw-redirect" title="Polysemic">polysemic</a> use of "<a href="Neo-Hittite" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Hittite">Neo-Hittite</a>" label as a designation for the later period, which is actually post-Hittite), corresponding to the Old, Middle and New Kingdoms of the Hittite history (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1750</span>–1500 BC, 1500–1430 BC and 1430–1180 BC, respectively). The stages are differentiated on both linguistic and paleographic grounds.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHout20112-3_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHout20112-3-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInglese202061_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInglese202061-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Hittitologist <a href="Alwin_Kloekhorst" title="Alwin Kloekhorst">Alwin Kloekhorst</a> (2019) recognizes two dialectal variants of Hittite: one he calls "Kanišite Hittite", and a second he named "Ḫattuša Hittite" (or Hittite proper).<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first is attested in clay tablets from Kaniš/Neša (<a href="K%C3%BCltepe" title="Kültepe">Kültepe</a>), and is dated earlier than the findings from Ḫattuša.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Script">Script</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Hittite_cuneiform" title="Hittite cuneiform">Hittite cuneiform</a></div>

<p>Hittite was written in an adapted form of Peripheral Akkadian <a href="Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">cuneiform</a> orthography from Northern Syria. The predominantly syllabic nature of the script makes it difficult to ascertain the precise phonetic qualities of some of the <a href="Hittite_phonology" title="Hittite phonology">Hittite sound inventory</a>.

</p><p>The syllabary distinguishes the following consonants (notably, the Akkadian <i>s</i> series is dropped),

</p>

<dl><dd><i>b, d, g, ḫ, k, l, m, n, p, r, š, t, z</i>, combined with the vowels <i>a, e, i, u</i>. Additionally, <i>ya</i> (= I.A : <span style="font-size:125%;font-family:UllikummiA" lang="und-Xsux">𒄿𒀀</span>), <i>wa</i> (= PI : <span style="font-size:125%;font-family:UllikummiA" lang="und-Xsux">𒉿</span>) and <i>wi</i> (= <i>wi<sub>5</sub></i> = GEŠTIN : <span style="font-size:125%;font-family:UllikummiA" lang="und-Xsux">𒃾</span>) signs are introduced.</dd></dl>

<p>The Akkadian unvoiced/voiced series (k/g, p/b, t/d) do not express the voiced/unvoiced contrast in writing, but double spellings in intervocalic positions represent voiceless consonants in Indo-European (<a href="Sturtevant's_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Sturtevant's law">Sturtevant's law</a>).

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Hittite_phonology" title="Hittite phonology">Hittite phonology</a></div>

<p>The limitations of the syllabic script in helping to determine the nature of Hittite phonology have been more or less overcome by means of comparative etymology and an examination of Hittite spelling conventions. Accordingly, scholars have surmised that Hittite possessed the following phonemes:

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3></div>

<th><a href="Vowel" title="Vowel">Vowels</a>

</th>

<th><a href="Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a>

</th>

<th><a href="Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">Central</a>

</th>

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th><a href="Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a>

</th>

</td>

<td> 

</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

</th>

</td>

<td> 

</td>

<td align="center">(<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a></span>)

</td></tr>

<tr>

</th>

<td> 

</td>

</td>

<td> 

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<ul><li>Long vowels appear as alternates to their corresponding short vowels when they are so conditioned by the accent.</li>

<li>Phonemically distinct long vowels occur infrequently.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3></div>

<caption>Consonant phonemes

</caption>

</th>

<th rowspan="2"><a href="Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a>

</th>

<th rowspan="2" colspan="2"><a href="Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a>

</th>

<th rowspan="2"><a href="Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a>

</th>

<th colspan="2"><a href="Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a>

</th>

<th colspan="2"><a href="Uvular_consonant" title="Uvular consonant">Uvular</a>

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th><span style="font-size: 85%;">plain</span></th>

<th><span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="Labialized_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Labialized consonant">labial</a></span>

</th>

<th><span style="font-size: 85%;">plain</span></th>

<th><span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="Labialized_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Labialized consonant">labial</a></span>

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th rowspan="2"><a href="Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a>

</th>

<th><span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="Fortis_and_lenis" title="Fortis and lenis">lenis</a></span>

</th>

</td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th><span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="Fortis_and_lenis" title="Fortis and lenis">fortis</a></span>

</th>

</td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th rowspan="2"><a href="Plosive" title="Plosive">Plosive</a>

</th>

<th><span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="Fortis_and_lenis" title="Fortis and lenis">lenis</a></span>

</th>

</td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th><span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="Fortis_and_lenis" title="Fortis and lenis">fortis</a></span>

</th>

</td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th rowspan="2"><a href="Fricative" title="Fricative">Fricative</a>

</th>

<th><span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="Fortis_and_lenis" title="Fortis and lenis">lenis</a></span>

</th>

<td>

</td>

</td>

<td>(<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a></span>)

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th><span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="Fortis_and_lenis" title="Fortis and lenis">fortis</a></span>

</th>

<td>

</td>

</td>

<td>(<span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a></span><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="Length_(phonetics)" title="Length (phonetics)">ː</a></span>)

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th colspan="2"><a href="Affricate" title="Affricate">Affricate</a>

</th>

<td>

</td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th rowspan="2"><a href="Liquid_consonant" title="Liquid consonant">Liquid</a>

</th>

<th><span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="Fortis_and_lenis" title="Fortis and lenis">lenis</a></span>

</th>

<td>

</td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th><span style="font-size: 85%;"><a href="Fortis_and_lenis" title="Fortis and lenis">fortis</a></span>

</th>

<td>

</td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th colspan="2"><a href="Semivowel" title="Semivowel">Glide</a>

</th>

<td>

</td>

</td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

</td>

<td>

</td>

<td>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plosives">Plosives</h3></div>

<p>Hittite had two series of consonants, one which was written always <a href="Gemination" title="Gemination">geminate</a> in the original script, and another that was always simple. In <a href="Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">cuneiform</a>, all consonant sounds except for glides could be geminate. It has long been noticed that the geminate series of plosives is the one descending from <a href="Proto-Indo-European" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-European">Proto-Indo-European</a> <a href="Proto-Indo-European_phonology" title="Proto-Indo-European phonology">voiceless stops</a>, and the simple plosives come from both voiced and voiced aspirate stops, which is often referred as <a href="Sturtevant's_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Sturtevant's law">Sturtevant's law</a>. Because of the typological implications of Sturtevant's law, the distinction between the two series is commonly regarded as one of voice. However, there is no agreement over the subject among scholars since some view the series as if they were differenced by <a href="Consonant_length" class="mw-redirect" title="Consonant length">length</a>, which a literal interpretation of the cuneiform orthography would suggest.

</p><p>Supporters of a length distinction usually point to the fact that <a href="Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a>, the language from which the Hittites borrowed the cuneiform script, had voicing, but Hittite scribes used voiced and voiceless signs interchangeably. <a href="Alwin_Kloekhorst" title="Alwin Kloekhorst">Alwin Kloekhorst</a> also argues that the absence of assimilatory voicing is also evidence for a <a href="Consonant_length" class="mw-redirect" title="Consonant length">length</a> distinction. He points out that the word "<i>e-ku-ud-du</i> – [ɛ́kʷːtu]" does not show any voice assimilation. However, if the distinction were one of voice, agreement between the stops should be expected since the <a href="Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">velar</a> and the <a href="Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">alveolar</a> plosives are known to be adjacent since that word's "u" represents not a vowel but <a href="Labialization" title="Labialization">labialization</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Laryngeals">Laryngeals</h3></div>

<p>Hittite preserves some very archaic features lost in other Indo-European languages. For example, Hittite has retained two of the three <a href="Laryngeal_theory" title="Laryngeal theory">laryngeals</a> (<span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*<i>h₂</i></span></span> and <span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">*<i>h₃</i></span></span> word-initially). Those sounds, whose existence had been hypothesized in 1879 by <a href="Ferdinand_de_Saussure" title="Ferdinand de Saussure">Ferdinand de Saussure</a>, on the basis of vowel quality in other Indo-European languages, were not preserved as separate sounds in any attested Indo-European language until the discovery of Hittite. In Hittite, the phoneme is written as <i>ḫ</i>. In that respect, Hittite is unlike any other attested Indo-European language and so the discovery of laryngeals in Hittite was a remarkable confirmation of Saussure's hypothesis.

</p><p>Both the preservation of the laryngeals and the lack of evidence that Hittite shared certain <a href="Grammar" title="Grammar">grammatical</a> features in the other early Indo-European languages have led some philologists to believe that the Anatolian languages split from the rest of Proto-Indo-European much earlier than the other divisions of the <a href="Proto-language" title="Proto-language">proto-language</a>. See <a href="#Classification">#Classification</a> above for more details.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Morphology">Morphology</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Hittite_grammar" title="Hittite grammar">Hittite grammar</a></div>

<p>Hittite is the oldest attested Indo-European language,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> yet it lacks several grammatical features that are exhibited by other early-attested <a href="Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European languages</a> such as <a href="Vedic_Sanskrit" title="Vedic Sanskrit">Vedic Sanskrit</a>, <a href="Classical_Latin" title="Classical Latin">Classical Latin</a>, <a href="Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a>, <a href="Old_Persian" title="Old Persian">Old Persian</a> and <a href="Avestan_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Avestan language">Old Avestan</a>. Notably, Hittite did not have a masculine–feminine gender system. Instead, it had a rudimentary noun-class system that was based on an older animate–inanimate opposition.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nouns">Nouns</h3></div>

<p>Hittite <a href="Inflection" title="Inflection">inflects</a> for nine <a href="Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">cases</a>: <a href="Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">nominative</a>, <a href="Vocative_case" title="Vocative case">vocative</a>, <a href="Accusative_case" title="Accusative case">accusative</a>, <a href="Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">genitive</a>, <a href="Dative_case" title="Dative case">dative</a>-<a href="Locative_case" title="Locative case">locative</a>, <a href="Ablative_case" title="Ablative case">ablative</a>, <a href="Ergative_case" title="Ergative case">ergative</a>, <a href="Allative_case" title="Allative case">allative</a>, and <a href="Instrumental_case" title="Instrumental case">instrumental</a>; two <a href="Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">numbers</a>: singular, and plural; and two <a href="Animacy" title="Animacy">animacy</a> classes: animate (common), and inanimate (neuter).<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adjectives and pronouns agree with nouns for <a href="Animacy" title="Animacy">animacy</a>, <a href="Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">number</a>, and <a href="Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">case</a>.

</p><p>The distinction in <a href="Animacy" title="Animacy">animacy</a> is rudimentary and generally occurs in the <a href="Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">nominative case</a>, and the same noun is sometimes attested in both animacy classes. There is a trend towards distinguishing fewer cases in the plural than in the singular. The <a href="Ergative_case" title="Ergative case">ergative case</a> is used when an inanimate noun is the <a href="Subject_(grammar)" title="Subject (grammar)">subject</a> of a <a href="Transitive_verb" title="Transitive verb">transitive verb</a>. Early Hittite texts have a <a href="Vocative_case" title="Vocative case">vocative case</a> for a few nouns with <i>-u</i>, but it ceased to be productive by the time of the earliest discovered sources and was subsumed by the nominative in most documents. The <a href="Allative_case" title="Allative case">allative</a> was subsumed in the later stages of the language by the <a href="Dative_case" title="Dative case">dative</a>-<a href="Locative_case" title="Locative case">locative</a>. An archaic <a href="Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">genitive</a> plural <i>-an</i> is found irregularly in earlier texts, as is an <a href="Instrumental_case" title="Instrumental case">instrumental</a> plural in <i>-it</i>. A few nouns also form a distinct <a href="Locative_case" title="Locative case">locative</a>, which had no case ending at all.

</p><p>The examples of <i>pišna-</i> ("man") for animate and <i>pēda-</i> ("place") for inanimate are used here to show the Hittite noun declension's most basic form:

</p>

</th>

<th colspan="2">Animate

</th>

</td>

<th colspan="2">Inanimate

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th>Singular</th>

<th>Plural</th>

<th>Singular</th>

<th>Plural

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th>Nominative

</th>

<td>pišnaš</td>

<td>pišnēš</td>

<td rowspan="2">pēdan</td>

<td rowspan="2">pēda

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>Accusative

</th>

<td>pišnan</td>

<td>pišnuš

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>Ergative

</th>

<td>pišnanza</td>

<td>pišnantēš</td>

<td>pēdanza</td>

<td>pēdantēš

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>Vocative

</th>

<td colspan="2">pišne</td>

<td>–

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>Genitive

</th>

<td colspan="2">pišnaš</td>

<td colspan="2">pēdaš

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>Dative/Locative

</th>

<td>pišni</td>

<td>pišnaš</td>

<td>pēdaš

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>Ablative

</th>

<td colspan="2">pišnaz</td>

<td colspan="2">pēdaz

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>Allative

</th>

<td>pišna</td>

<td>–

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th>Instrumental

</th>

<td colspan="2">pišnit</td>

<td colspan="2">pēdit

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verbs">Verbs</h3></div>

<p>The verbal morphology is less complicated than for other early-attested <a href="Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European languages</a> like <a href="Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a> and <a href="Vedic_Sanskrit" title="Vedic Sanskrit">Vedic</a>. Hittite verbs <a href="Inflection" title="Inflection">inflect</a> according to two general <a href="Grammatical_conjugation" title="Grammatical conjugation">conjugations</a> (<i>mi</i>-conjugation and <i>hi</i>-conjugation), two <a href="Grammatical_voice" class="mw-redirect" title="Grammatical voice">voices</a> (<a href="Active_voice" title="Active voice">active</a> and <a href="Mediopassive_voice" title="Mediopassive voice">medio-passive</a>), two <a href="Grammatical_mood" title="Grammatical mood">moods</a> (<a href="Indicative_mood" class="mw-redirect" title="Indicative mood">indicative mood</a> and <a href="Imperative_mood" title="Imperative mood">imperative</a>), two aspects (perfective and imperfective), and two <a href="Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">tenses</a> (<a href="Present_tense" title="Present tense">present</a> and <a href="Preterite" title="Preterite">preterite</a>). Verbs have two <a href="Infinitive" title="Infinitive">infinitive</a> forms, a <a href="Verbal_noun" title="Verbal noun">verbal noun</a>, a <a href="Supine" title="Supine">supine</a>, and a <a href="Participle" title="Participle">participle</a>. Rose (2006) lists 132 <i>hi</i> verbs and interprets the <i>hi</i>/<i>mi</i> oppositions as vestiges of a system of grammatical voice ("centripetal voice" vs. "centrifugal voice").

</p>

</th>

<th style="background:#C0F0C0"><i>mi</i>-conjugation active

</th>

<th style="background:#C0F0C0"><i>ḫi</i>-conjugation active

</th>

<th style="background:#C0F0C0">Shared medio-passive

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td colspan="4" style="background:#FFDEAD; text-align:center;"><b>Indicative present</b>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>1. Singular</td>

<td><i>-ḫḫa/-ḫḫari/-ḫḫaḫari</i>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>2. Singular</td>

<td><i>tta/-ttari</i> (or <i>-tati</i>)

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>3. Singular</td>

<td><i>a/-ari/-tta/-ttari</i>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>1. Plural</td>

<td><i>-wašta</i> (or <i>-waštari</i>)

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>2. Plural</td>

<td colspan="2" style="text-align:center"><i>-ttēni/-ttāni</i> (or <i>-šteni</i>)</td>

<td><i>-dduma/-ddumari</i> (or <i>-ddumat</i>)

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>3. Plural</td>

<td><i>-anta/-antari</i>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td colspan="4" style="background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center"><b>Indicative preterite</b>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>1st singular</td>

<td><i>-ḫḫat/-ḫḫati/-ḫḫaḫat/-ḫḫaḫati</i>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>2nd singular</td>

<td><i>-ttat/-ttati</i> (or <i>-tta/-at</i>)

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>3rd singular</td>

<td><i>-at/-ati/-ta/-ttat/-ttati</i>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>1st plural</td>

<td><i>-waštat/-waštati</i>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>2nd plural</td>

<td><i>-ddumat/-ddudumati</i>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>3rd plural</td>

<td><i>-antat/-antati</i>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td colspan="4" style="background-color:#FFDEAD; text-align:center"><b>Imperative present</b>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>1st singular</td>

<td><i>-ḫḫaru/-ḫḫaḫaru</i>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>2nd singular</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>3rd singular</td>

<td><i>-aru/-ttaru</i>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>1st plural</td>

<td>*<i>-waštati</i>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>2nd plural</td>

<td><i>-ddumat/-ddumati</i>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>3rd plural</td>

<td><i>-antaru</i>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Syntax">Syntax</h2></div>

<p>Hittite is a <a href="Head_final" class="mw-redirect" title="Head final">head-final</a> language: it has <a href="Subject-object-verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject-object-verb">subject-object-verb</a> <a href="Word_order" title="Word order">word order</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a <a href="Split_ergative" class="mw-redirect" title="Split ergative">split ergative</a> <a href="Morphosyntactic_alignment" title="Morphosyntactic alignment">alignment</a>, and is a <a href="Synthetic_language" title="Synthetic language">synthetic language</a>; <a href="Prepositions_and_postpositions" class="mw-redirect" title="Prepositions and postpositions">adpositions</a> follow their <a href="Complement_(linguistics)" title="Complement (linguistics)">complement</a>, adjectives and genitives precede the nouns that they modify, adverbs precede verbs, and <a href="Subordination_(linguistics)#Subordinate_clauses" title="Subordination (linguistics)">subordinate clauses</a> precede <a href="Independent_clause" title="Independent clause">main clauses</a>.

</p><p>Hittite syntax shows one noteworthy feature that is typical of Anatolian languages: commonly, the beginning of a sentence or clause is composed of either a sentence-connecting particle or otherwise a fronted or topicalized form, and a "chain" of fixed-order <a href="Clitic" title="Clitic">clitics</a> is then appended.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Decipherment">Decipherment</h2></div>

<p>The first substantive claim as to the affiliation of Hittite was made by <a href="J%C3%B8rgen_Alexander_Knudtzon" title="Jørgen Alexander Knudtzon">Jørgen Alexander Knudtzon</a><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in 1902, in a book devoted to two letters between the king of Egypt and a Hittite ruler, found at <a href="El-Amarna" class="mw-redirect" title="El-Amarna">El-Amarna</a>, <a href="Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>. Knudtzon argued that Hittite was Indo-European, largely because of its <a href="Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphology</a>. Although he had no bilingual texts, he was able to provide a partial interpretation of the two letters because of the formulaic nature of the diplomatic correspondence of the period.<sup id="cite_ref-Beckman_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beckman-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Knudtzon was definitively shown to have been correct when many tablets written in the familiar <a href="Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a> <a href="Cuneiform_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuneiform script">cuneiform script</a> but in an unknown language were discovered by <a href="Hugo_Winckler" title="Hugo Winckler">Hugo Winckler</a> in what is now the village of <a href="Bo%C4%9Fazkale" title="Boğazkale">Boğazköy</a>, Turkey, which was the former site of <a href="Hattusa" title="Hattusa">Hattusa</a>, the capital of the Hittite state.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Based on a study of this extensive <a href="Bed%C5%99ich_Hrozn%C3%BD#Deciphering_of_the_Hittite_language" title="Bedřich Hrozný">material</a>, <a href="Bed%C5%99ich_Hrozn%C3%BD" title="Bedřich Hrozný">Bedřich Hrozný</a> succeeded in analyzing the language. He presented his argument that the language is Indo-European in a paper published in 1915 (Hrozný 1915), which was followed by a grammar of the language (Hrozný 1917).<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Hrozný's argument for the Indo-European affiliation of Hittite was thoroughly modern although poorly substantiated. He focused on the striking similarities in idiosyncratic aspects of the morphology that are unlikely to occur independently by chance or to be borrowed.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They included the <i>r</i>/<i>n</i> <a href="Alternation_(linguistics)" title="Alternation (linguistics)">alternation</a> in some noun stems (the <a href="Heteroclitic_stem" class="mw-redirect" title="Heteroclitic stem">heteroclitics</a>) and vocalic <a href="Ablaut" class="mw-redirect" title="Ablaut">ablaut</a>, which are both seen in the alternation in the word for <i>water</i> between the nominative singular, <i>wadar</i>, and the genitive singular, <i>wedenas</i>. He also presented a set of regular sound correspondences.

</p><p>After a brief initial delay because of disruption during the <a href="First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a>, Hrozný's decipherment, tentative grammatical analysis and demonstration of the Indo-European affiliation of Hittite were rapidly accepted and more broadly substantiated by contemporary scholars such as <a href="Edgar_H._Sturtevant" class="mw-redirect" title="Edgar H. Sturtevant">Edgar H. Sturtevant</a>, who authored the first scientifically acceptable Hittite grammar with a <a href="Chrestomathy" title="Chrestomathy">chrestomathy</a> and a glossary. The most up-to-date grammar of the Hittite language is currently Hoffner and Melchert (2008).

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Corpus">Corpus</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Hittite_inscriptions" title="Hittite inscriptions">Hittite inscriptions</a></div>

<p>More than 30,000 tablets or fragments have been excavated from the royal archives of the capital of the Hittite Kingdom <a href="Hattusa" title="Hattusa">Hattusa</a>, close to the modern town of Boğazkale or Boğazköy. While Hattusa has yielded the majority of tablets, other sites where they have been found include: <a href="Ma%C5%9Fat_H%C3%B6y%C3%BCk" title="Maşat Höyük">Maşat Höyük</a>, Ortaköy, Kuşaklı or Kayalıpınar in Turkey, <a href="Alalakh" title="Alalakh">Alalakh</a>, <a href="Ugarit" title="Ugarit">Ugarit</a> and <a href="Emar" title="Emar">Emar</a> in <a href="Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, <a href="Amarna" title="Amarna">Amarna</a> in <a href="Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>.

</p><p>The tablets are mostly conserved in the Turkish museums of Ankara, Istanbul, Boğazkale and Çorum (Ortaköy) as well as in international museums such as the <a href="Pergamonmuseum" class="mw-redirect" title="Pergamonmuseum">Pergamonmuseum</a> in Berlin, the <a href="British_Museum" title="British Museum">British Museum</a> in London and the <a href="Mus%C3%A9e_du_Louvre" class="mw-redirect" title="Musée du Louvre">Musée du Louvre</a> in Paris.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_proclamation_of_Anitta">The proclamation of <a href="Anitta_(king)" title="Anitta (king)">Anitta</a></h3></div>

<p>This text has been found in three versions, the earliest of which is considered the oldest known of all Hittite language texts, dated from between the end of the 17th century BCE and the middle of the 16th century BCE.

</p>

</caption>

<th>Transliteration

</th>

<th>Translation

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td><sup>M</sup><i>A-ni-it-ta DUMU</i> <sup>M</sup><i>Pi-it-ha-a-na LUGAL</i> <sup>URU</sup><i>Ku-us-sa-ra QÍ-BÍ-MA</i>

<p><i>ne-pi-is-za-as-ta</i> <sup>D</sup><i>IŠKUR-un-ni a-as-su-us e-es-ta</i>

</p><p><i>na-as-ta</i> <sup>D</sup><i>IŠKUR-un-ni-ma ma-a-an a-as-su-us e-es-ta</i> <sup>URU</sup><i>Ne-e-sa-as LUGAL-us</i> <sup>URU</sup><i>Ku-us-sa-ra-as LUGAL-i ...</i>

</p><p><i>LUGAL</i> <sup>URU</sup><i>Ku-us-sa-ra URU-az kat-ta pa-an-ga-ri-it ú-e-et nu</i> <sup>URU</sup><i>Ne-e-sa-an is-pa-an-di na-ak-ki-it da-a-as</i>

</p><p><sup>URU</sup><i>Ne-e-sa-as LUGAL-un IṢ-BAT Ù DUMU</i><sup>MEŠ</sup> <sup>URU</sup><i>Ne-e-sa-as i-da-a-lu na-at-ta ku-e-da-ni-ik-ki tak-ki-is-ta</i>

</p><p><i>an-nu-us at-tu-us i-e-et</i>

</p><p><i>nu</i> <sup>M</sup><i>Pi-it-ha-a-na-as at-ta-as-ma-as a-ap-pa-an sa-ni-ya ú-et-ti hu-ul-la-an-za-an hu-ul-la-nu-un</i>

</p><p><sup>D</sup><i>UTU-az ut-ne-e ku-it ku-it-pat a-ra-is nu-us hu-u-ma-an-du-us-pat hu-ul-la-nu-un</i>

</p><p><i>ka-ru-ú</i> <sup>M</sup><i>U-uh-na-as LUGAL</i> <sup>URU</sup><i>Za-a-al-pu-wa</i> <sup>D</sup><i>Si-ú-sum-mi-in</i> <sup>URU</sup><i>Ne-e-sa-az</i> <sup>URU</sup><i>Za-a-al-pu-wa pe-e-da-as</i>

</p><p><i>ap-pe-ez-zi-ya-na</i> <sup>M</sup><i>A-ni-it-ta-as LUGAL.GAL</i> <sup>D</sup><i>Si-ú-sum-mi-in</i> <sup>URU</sup><i>Za-a-al-pu-wa-az a-ap-pa</i> <sup>URU</sup><i>Ne-e-sa pe-e-tah-hu-un</i>

</p><p><sup>M</sup><i>Hu-uz-zi-ya-na LUGAL</i> <sup>URU</sup><i>Za-a-al-pu-wa hu-su-wa-an-ta-an</i> <sup>URU</sup><i>Ne-e-sa ú-wa-te-nu-un</i>

</p><p><sup>URU</sup><i>Ha-at-tu-sa</i>

</p><p><i>tak-ki-is-ta</i>

</p><p><i>sa-an ta-a-la-ah-hu-un</i>

</p><p><i>ma-a-na-as ap-pe-ez-zi-ya-na ki-is-ta-an-zi-at-ta-at</i>

</p><p><i>sa-an</i> <sup>D</sup><i>Hal-ma-su-i-iz</i> <sup>D</sup><i>si-i-us-mi-is pa-ra-a pa-is</i>

</p><p><i>sa-an is-pa-an-di na-ak-ki-it da-a-ah-hu-un</i>

</p><p><i>pe-e-di-is-si-ma ZÀ.AH-LI-an a-ne-e-nu-un</i>

</p><p><i>ku-is am-me-el a-ap-pa-an LUGAL-us ki-i-sa-ri nu</i> <sup>URU</sup><i>Ha-at-tu-sa-an a-ap-pa a-sa-a-si na-an ne-pi-sa-as</i> <sup>D</sup><i>IŠKUR-as ha-az-zi-e-et-tu</i>

</p>

</td>

<td><blockquote><p>Anitta, Son of Pithana, King of Kussara, speak!

</p><p>He was dear to the Stormgod of Heaven,

</p><p>And when he was dear to the Stormgod of Heaven, the king of Nesa [verb broken off] to the king of Kussara.

</p><p>The king of Kussara, Pithana, came down out of the city in force, and he took the city of Nesa in the night by force.

</p><p>He took the King of Nesa captive, but he did not do any evil to the inhabitants of Nesa; instead,

</p><p>He made them mothers and fathers.

</p><p>After my father, Pithana, I suppressed a revolt in the same year.

</p><p>Whatever lands rose up in the direction of the sunrise, I defeated each of the aforementioned.

</p><p>Previously, Uhna, the king of Zalpuwas, had removed our Sius from the city of Nesa to the city of Zalpuwas.

</p><p>But subsequently, I, Anittas, the Great King, brought our Sius back from Zalpuwas to Nesa.

</p><p>But Huzziyas, the king of Zalpuwas, I brought back alive to Nesa.

</p><p>The city of Hattusas [tablet broken]

</p><p>Contrived.

</p><p>And I abandoned it.

</p><p>But afterwards, when it suffered famine,

</p><p>My goddess, Halmasuwiz, handed it over to me.

</p><p>And in the night I took it by force;

</p><p>and in its place, I sowed weeds.

</p><p>

Whoever becomes king after me and settles Hattusas again, may the Stormgod of Heaven smite him!</p></blockquote>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

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<ul><li><a href="Hittitology" title="Hittitology">Hittitology</a></li></ul>

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<ul><li><a href="Albrecht_Goetze" title="Albrecht Goetze">Albrecht Goetze</a></li>

<li><a href="Bed%C5%99ich_Hrozn%C3%BD" title="Bedřich Hrozný">Bedřich Hrozný</a></li>

<li><a href="Harry_A._Hoffner" title="Harry A. Hoffner">Harry A. Hoffner</a></li>

<li><a href="Johannes_Friedrich_(linguist)" title="Johannes Friedrich (linguist)">Johannes Friedrich</a></li>

<li><a href="Alwin_Kloekhorst" title="Alwin Kloekhorst">Alwin Kloekhorst</a></li>

<li><a href="Craig_Melchert" title="Craig Melchert">Craig Melchert</a></li>

<li><a href="Archibald_Sayce" title="Archibald Sayce">Archibald Sayce</a></li>

<li><a href="Edgar_Howard_Sturtevant" title="Edgar Howard Sturtevant">Edgar Howard Sturtevant</a></li>

<li><a href="Henri_Wittmann" title="Henri Wittmann">Henri Wittmann</a></li></ul></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoffner & Melchert (2008), p. 2</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYakubovich2020221–237-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYakubovich2020221–237_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYakubovich2020">Yakubovich 2020</a>, pp. 221–237.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">van den Hout, Theo, (2020). A History of Hittite Literacy: Writing and Reading in Late Bronze-Age Anatolia (1650–1200 BC), Published online: 18 December 2020, Print publication: 07 January 2021, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/history-of-hittite-literacy/introduction/2665C532BD423C96A11075D908A9EF09">"Introduction"</a>: "...The hero of this book is literacy, writing and reading, in the Hittite kingdom in ancient Anatolia, or modern-day Turkey, from roughly 1650 to 1200 BC, give or take several years or perhaps even a decade or two..."</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Yakubovich 2010, p. 307</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBryce201273-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBryce201273_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBryce2012">Bryce 2012</a>, p. 73.</span>

</li>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFGüterbockHoffnerDiamond1997" class="citation book cs1">Güterbock, Hans Gustav; Hoffner, Harry A.; Diamond, Irving L. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=441hAAAAMAAJ&q=Kanisumnili"><i>Perspectives on Hittite civilization</i></a>. Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. p. 188. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781885923042</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGlatz202035-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGlatz202035_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGlatz2020">Glatz 2020</a>, p. 35.</span>

</li>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kloekhorst, Alwin. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/86912968/Anatolian_2022_">Anatolian</a>". In: <i>The Indo-European Language Family: A Phylogenetic Perspective</i>. Edited by Thomas Olander. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2022. pp. 63–65. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781108758666.005">10.1017/9781108758666.005</a>.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMelchert2012">Melchert 2012</a>, pp. 2–5.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMelchert2012">Melchert 2012</a>, p. 7.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJasanoff2003">Jasanoff 2003</a>, p. 20 with footnote 41</span>

</li>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEInglese202061-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEInglese202061_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFInglese2020">Inglese 2020</a>, p. 61.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kloekhorst, Alwin. <i>Kanišite Hittite: The Earliest Attested Record of Indo-European</i>. Leiden, The Netherlands, Boston: Brill, 2019. p. 246. DOI: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004382107">https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004382107</a></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kloekhorst, Alwin. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/86912968/Anatolian_2022_">Anatolian</a>". In: <i>The Indo-European Language Family: A Phylogenetic Perspective</i>. Edited by Thomas Olander. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2022. pp. 63–64, 75. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2F9781108758666.005">10.1017/9781108758666.005</a></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Coulson 1986, p. xiii</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.assyrianlanguages.org/hittite/hittite_grammar.pdf">"Hittite Grammar"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Assyrianlanguages.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-01-17</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160703162310/http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/eieol/hitol-2-X.html">"The Telepenus "Vanishing God" Myth (Anatolian mythology)"</a>. <i>Utexas.edu</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/eieol/hitol-2-X.html">the original</a> on 2016-07-03<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-01-17</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFJ._D._Hawkins2009" class="citation journal cs1">J. D. Hawkins (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20190801114400mp_/https://www.britishmuseum.org/pdf/Hawkins.pdf">"The Arzawa Letters in Recent Perspective"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>British Museum Studies in Ancient Egypt and Sudan</i>. <b>14</b>: <span class="nowrap">73–</span>83.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Beckman-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Beckman_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBeckman,_Gary2011" class="citation journal cs1">Beckman, Gary (2011). S.R. Steadman; G. McMahon (eds.). "The Hittite Language: Recovery and Grammatical Sketch". <i>The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia 10,000-323 B.C.E.</i>: <span class="nowrap">518–</span>519. <a href="Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027.42%2F86652">2027.42/86652</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Silvia Alaura: "Nach Boghasköi!" Zur Vorgeschichte der Ausgrabungen in Boğazköy-Ḫattuša und zu den archäologischen Forschungen bis zum Ersten Weltkrieg, Benedict Press 2006. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>3-00-019295-6</bdi></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortson2004">Fortson (2004</a>:154)</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFortson2004">Fortson (2004</a>:154)</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoffner & Melchert 2008, 2-3</span>

</li>

</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2></div>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Introductions_and_overviews">Introductions and overviews</h3></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFBryce2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Trevor_R._Bryce" title="Trevor R. Bryce">Bryce, Trevor R.</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8-MTDAAAQBAJ"><i>Life and Society in the Hittite World</i></a>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780199241705</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBryce2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Trevor_R._Bryce" title="Trevor R. Bryce">Bryce, Trevor R.</a> (2005) [1998]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HMHmCwAAQBAJ"><i>The Kingdom of the Hittites</i></a> (2nd revised ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780199279081</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFBryce2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Trevor_R._Bryce" title="Trevor R. Bryce">Bryce, Trevor R.</a> (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gp8lMpoFAUsC"><i>The World of The Neo-Hittite Kingdoms: A Political and Military History</i></a>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780191505027</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFFortson2004" class="citation book cs1">Fortson, Benjamin W. (2004). <i>Indo-European Language and Culture : an Introduction</i>. Malden: Blackwell. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>1-4051-0316-7</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFGlatz2020" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Trevor_R._Bryce" title="Trevor R. Bryce">Glatz, Claudia</a> (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SPwAEAAAQBAJ"><i>The Making of Empire in Bronze Age Anatolia: Hittite Sovereign Practice, Resistance, and Negotiation</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781108491105</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHeld_Jr.1988" class="citation book cs1">Held Jr., Warren H. (1988). <i>Beginning Hittite</i>. Columbus OH: Slavica. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-89357-184-9</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMelchert2012" class="citation web cs1">Melchert, H. Craig (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.linguistics.ucla.edu/people/Melchert/The%20Position%20of%20AnatolianRevised3.pdf">"The Position of Anatolian"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRieken2022" class="citation book cs1">Rieken, Elisabeth (2022). <i>Einführung in die hethitische Sprache und Schrift</i> (3rd ed.). Münster: Ugarit-Verlag. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-86835-352-5</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFZeilfelder2005" class="citation book cs1">Zeilfelder, Susanne (2005). <i>Hittite Exercise Book</i>. Wiesbaden. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-447-05206-1</bdi>.</cite><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite book}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)</span></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Dictionaries">Dictionaries</h3></div>

<ul><li>Goetze, Albrecht (1954). "Review of: Johannes Friedrich, <i>Hethitisches Wörterbuch</i> (Heidelberg: Winter)", <i>Language</i> 30, pp. 401–5.</li>

<li>Kloekhorst, Alwin. <i>Etymological Dictionary of the Hittite Inherited Lexicon</i>. Leiden–Boston: Brill, 2008.</li>

<li>Puhvel, Jaan (1984–). <i>Hittite Etymological Dictionary</i>. 10 vols. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.</li>

<li>Sturtevant, Edgar H. (1931). "Hittite glossary: words of known or conjectured meaning, with Sumerian ideograms and Accadian words common in Hittite texts", <i>Language</i> 7, no. 2, pp. 3–82., <i>Language Monograph</i> No. 9.</li>

<li>The <i><a href="Chicago_Hittite_Dictionary" title="Chicago Hittite Dictionary">Chicago Hittite Dictionary</a></i></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Grammar">Grammar</h3></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFHoffner,_Harry_A.Melchert,_H._Craig2008" class="citation book cs1">Hoffner, Harry A.; Melchert, H. Craig (2008). <i>A Grammar of the Hittite Language</i>. Winona: Eisenbrauns. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-57506-119-1</bdi>.</cite> 2nd Edition, 2024 <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781646023066</bdi></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHout2011" class="citation book cs1">Hout, Theo van den (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QDJNg5Nyef0C"><i>The Elements of Hittite</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781139501781</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHrozný,_Bedřich1917" class="citation book cs1">Hrozný, Bedřich (1917). <i>Die Sprache der Hethiter: ihr Bau und ihre Zugehörigkeit zum indogermanischen Sprachstamm</i>. Leipzig: Hinrichs.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFInglese2020" class="citation book cs1">Inglese, Guglielmo (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iKnwDwAAQBAJ"><i>The Hittite Middle Voice: Synchrony, Diachrony, Typology</i></a>. Leiden-Boston: Brill. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9789004432307</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFJasanoff2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Jay_Jasanoff" title="Jay Jasanoff">Jasanoff, Jay H.</a> (2003). <i>Hittite and the Indo-European Verb</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-19-924905-9</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFLuraghi,_Silvia1997" class="citation book cs1">Luraghi, Silvia (1997). <i>Hittite</i>. Munich: Lincom Europa. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>3-89586-076-X</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMelchert,_H._Craig1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Craig_Melchert" title="Craig Melchert">Melchert, H. Craig</a> (1994). <i>Anatolian Historical Phonology</i>. Amsterdam: Rodopi. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>90-5183-697-X</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFPatri,_Sylvain2007" class="citation book cs1">Patri, Sylvain (2007). <i>L'alignement syntaxique dans les langues indo-européennes d'Anatolie</i>. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-3-447-05612-0</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRose,_S._R.2006" class="citation book cs1">Rose, S. R. (2006). <i>The Hittite -hi/-mi conjugations</i>. Innsbruck: Institut für Sprachen und Literaturen der Universität Innsbruck. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>3-85124-704-3</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li>Sturtevant, Edgar H. A. (1933, 1951). <i>Comparative Grammar of the Hittite Language</i>. Rev. ed. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1951. First edition: 1933.</li>

<li>Sturtevant, Edgar H. A. (1940). <i>The Indo-Hittite laryngeals</i>. Baltimore: Linguistic Society of America.</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWatkins,_Calvert2004" class="citation journal cs1">Watkins, Calvert (2004). "Hittite". <i>The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages</i>: <span class="nowrap">551–</span>575. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-521-56256-2</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFYakubovich,_Ilya2010" class="citation book cs1">Yakubovich, Ilya (2010). <i>Sociolinguistics of the Luwian Language</i>. Leiden: Brill. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9789004177918</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Text_editions">Text editions</h3></div>

<ul><li>Goetze, Albrecht & Edgar H. Sturtevant (1938). <i>The Hittite Ritual of Tunnawi</i>. New Haven: American Oriental Society.</li>

<li>Sturtevant, Edgar H. A., & George Bechtel (1935). <i>A Hittite Chrestomathy</i>. Baltimore: Linguistic Society of America.</li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFKnudtzon,_J._A.1902" class="citation book cs1">Knudtzon, J. A. (1902). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/diezweiarzawabr01torpgoog"><i>Die Zwei Arzawa-Briefe: Die ältesten Urkunden in indogermanischer Sprache</i></a>. Leipzig: Hinrichs.</cite></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Articles">Articles</h3></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFArchi2010" class="citation book cs1">Archi, Alfonso (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gJjwCflv2q4C">"When Did the Hittites Begin to Write in Hittite?"</a>. <i>Pax Hethitica: Studies on the Hittites and Their Neighbours in Honour of Itamar Singer</i>. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag. pp. <span class="nowrap">37–</span>46. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9783447061193</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFGiusfrediPisanielloMatessi2023" class="citation book cs1">Giusfredi, Federico; Pisaniello, Valerio; Matessi, Alvise (2023). <i>Contacts of Languages and Peoples in the Hittite and Post-Hittite World: The Bronze Age and Hatti</i>. Brill. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9789004548602</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFHrozný,_Bedřich1915" class="citation journal cs1">Hrozný, Bedřich (1915). "Die Lösung des hethitischen Problems". <i>Mitteilungen der Deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft</i>. <b>56</b>: <span class="nowrap">17–</span>50.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMelchert2020" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Craig_Melchert" title="Craig Melchert">Melchert, Craig</a> (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LFbPDwAAQBAJ">"Luwian"</a>. <i>A Companion to Ancient Near Eastern Languages</i>. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons. pp. <span class="nowrap">239–</span>256. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781119193296</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSturtevant,_Edgar_H.1932" class="citation journal cs1">Sturtevant, Edgar H. (1932). "The Development of the Stops in Hittite". <i>Journal of the American Oriental Society</i>. <b>52</b> (1). American Oriental Society: <span class="nowrap">1–</span>12. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F593573">10.2307/593573</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/593573">593573</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFSturtevant,_Edgar_H.1940" class="citation journal cs1">Sturtevant, Edgar H. (1940). "Evidence for voicing in Hittite g". <i>Language</i>. <b>16</b> (2). Linguistic Society of America: <span class="nowrap">81–</span>87. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F408942">10.2307/408942</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/408942">408942</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWittmann,_Henri1969" class="citation journal cs1">Wittmann, Henri (1969). "A note on the linguistic form of Hittite sheep". <i>Revue hittite et asianique</i>. <b>22</b>: <span class="nowrap">117–</span>118.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWittmann,_Henri1973" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Wittmann, Henri (1973) [1964]. "Some Hittite etymologies". <i>Die Sprache</i>. 10, 19: <span class="nowrap">144–</span>148, <span class="nowrap">39–</span>43.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWittmann,_Henri1969" class="citation journal cs1">Wittmann, Henri (1969). "The development of K in Hittite". <i>Glossa</i>. <b>3</b>: <span class="nowrap">22–</span>26.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWittmann,_Henri1969" class="citation journal cs1">Wittmann, Henri (1969). "The Indo-European drift and the position of Hittite". <i>International Journal of American Linguistics</i>. <b>35</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">266–</span>268. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F465065">10.1086/465065</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:106405518">106405518</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFYakubovich2020" class="citation book cs1">Yakubovich, Ilya (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LFbPDwAAQBAJ">"Hittite"</a>. <i>A Companion to Ancient Near Eastern Languages</i>. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons. pp. <span class="nowrap">221–</span>237. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781119193296</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Hittite_Swadesh_list" class="extiw external" title="wiktionary:Appendix:Hittite Swadesh list">Appendix:Hittite Swadesh list</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div>

</div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lrc.la.utexas.edu/eieol/hitol">Hittite Online</a> by Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum, free online lessons at the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://liberalarts.utexas.edu/lrc">Linguistics Research Center</a> at the <a href="University_of_Texas_at_Austin" title="University of Texas at Austin">University of Texas at Austin</a></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFLauffenburger2006" class="citation web cs1">Lauffenburger, Olivier (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.assyrianlanguages.org/hittite/">"The Hittite Grammar Homepage"</a>.</cite></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hethport.uni-wuerzburg.de/HPM/index.php">Portal Mainz</a> (in German; includes text corpora of Hittite texts in various genres with German translations)</li>

<li><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170225141334/https://www.ediana.gwi.uni-muenchen.de/">"Digital etymological-philological Dictionary of the Ancient Anatolian Corpus Languages (eDiAna)"</a>. <a href="Ludwig-Maximilians-Universit%C3%A4t_M%C3%BCnchen" class="mw-redirect" title="Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München">Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ediana.gwi.uni-muenchen.de">the original</a> on 25 February 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 February</span> 2017</span>.</cite></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://humanities.uchicago.edu/orgs/xstar/eCHD">The Electronic Edition of the Chicago Hittite Dictionary</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110605074348/http://humanities.uchicago.edu/orgs/xstar/eCHD/">Archived</a> 2011-06-05 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – The University of Chicago</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040113013247/http://www.etana.org/abzu/">ABZU</a> – a guide to information related to the study of the Ancient Near East on the Web</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wordgumbo.com/ie/cmp/hitt.htm">Hittite Dictionary</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\ier\ana&limit=-1">Hittite basic lexicon at the Global Lexicostatistical Database</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikis.hu-berlin.de/interlinear_glossing/Hittite:Glossing_of_common_Hittite_forms">Hittite in the wiki <i>Glossing Ancient Languages</i></a> (recommendations for the <a href="Interlinear_gloss" title="Interlinear gloss">Interlinear Morphemic Glossing</a> of Hittite texts)</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://spw.uni-goettingen.de/projects/aig/lng-hit.html">glottothèque – Ancient Indo-European Grammars online</a>, an online collection of introductory videos to Ancient Indo-European languages produced by the University of Göttingen</li></ul>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Anatolian_languages84" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">

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</style><div id="Anatolian_languages84" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Anatolian_languages" title="Anatolian languages">Anatolian languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul>

<li><a href="Palaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaic">Palaic</a></li>

<li><a href="Lydian_language" title="Lydian language">Lydian</a></li>

<li><a href="Lycaonian_language" title="Lycaonian language">Lycaonian</a> (?)</li></ul>

</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Luwic9" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Luwic" class="mw-redirect" title="Luwic">Luwic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Luwian_language" title="Luwian language">Luwian</a>

<ul><li><a href="Luwian_language#Cuneiform_Luwian" title="Luwian language">Cuneiform</a></li>

<li><a href="Luwian_language#Hieroglyphic_Luwian" title="Luwian language">Hieroglyphic</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Lycian_language" title="Lycian language">Lycian</a></li>

<li><a href="Milyan_language" title="Milyan language">Milyan</a></li>

<li><a href="Carian_language" title="Carian language">Carian</a></li>

<li><a href="Sidetic_language" title="Sidetic language">Sidetic</a></li>

<li><a href="Pisidian_language" title="Pisidian language">Pisidian</a></li>

<li><a href="Kala%C5%A1ma_language" title="Kalašma language">Kalasmaic</a> (?)</li>

<li><a href="Trojan_language" title="Trojan language">Trojan</a> (?)</li>

<li><a href="Isaurian_language" title="Isaurian language">Isaurian</a> (?)</li>

<li><a href="Ancient_Cappadocian_language" title="Ancient Cappadocian language">Cappadocian</a> (?)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reconstructions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Proto-Anatolian_language" title="Proto-Anatolian language">Proto-Anatolian</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Alphabets_of_Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Alphabets of Asia Minor">Alphabets</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Hittite_cuneiform" title="Hittite cuneiform">Hittite cuneiform</a></li>

<li><a href="Anatolian_hieroglyphs" title="Anatolian hieroglyphs">Anatolian hieroglyphs</a></li>

<li><a href="Lydian_alphabet" title="Lydian alphabet">Lydian alphabet</a></li>

<li><a href="Carian_alphabets" title="Carian alphabets">Carian alphabets</a></li>

<li><a href="Lycian_alphabet" title="Lycian alphabet">Lycian alphabet</a></li>

<li><a href="Phrygian_alphabet" title="Phrygian alphabet">Phrygian alphabet</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Indo-European_languages_(list)432" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Indo-European_languages_(list)432" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European languages</a> (<a href="List_of_Indo-European_languages" title="List of Indo-European languages">list</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Albanoid" title="Albanoid">Albanoid</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Albanian_language" title="Albanian language">Albanian</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Messapic_language" title="Messapic language">Messapic</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Illyrian_language" title="Illyrian language">Illyrian</a>?</i></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="Anatolian_languages" title="Anatolian languages">Anatolian</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><i><a href="Lydian_language" title="Lydian language">Lydian</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Palaic_language" title="Palaic language">Palaic</a></i></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="Anatolian_languages#Luwic_branch" title="Anatolian languages">Luwic</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i><a href="Carian_language" title="Carian language">Carian</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Luwian_language" title="Luwian language">Luwian</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Lycian_language" title="Lycian language">Lycian</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Milyan_language" title="Milyan language">Milyan</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Pisidian_language" title="Pisidian language">Pisidian</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Sidetic_language" title="Sidetic language">Sidetic</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Kala%C5%A1ma_language" title="Kalašma language">Kalasmaic</a>?</i></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Balto-Slavic_languages" title="Balto-Slavic languages">Balto-Slavic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Baltic_languages" title="Baltic languages">Baltic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i><a href="Dnieper-Oka_language" title="Dnieper-Oka language">Dnieper-Oka</a></i>

<ul><li><i><a href="Golyad_language" title="Golyad language">Golyad</a></i></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="East_Baltic_languages" title="East Baltic languages">East Baltic</a></li>

<li><i><a href="West_Baltic_languages" title="West Baltic languages">West Baltic</a></i></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="East_Slavic_languages" title="East Slavic languages">East Slavic</a></li>

<li><a href="South_Slavic_languages" title="South Slavic languages">South Slavic</a></li>

<li><a href="West_Slavic_languages" title="West Slavic languages">West Slavic</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Hispano-Celtic_languages" title="Hispano-Celtic languages"><i>Hispano-Celtic</i></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i><a href="Celtiberian_language" title="Celtiberian language">Celtiberian</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Gallaecian_language" title="Gallaecian language">Gallaecian</a></i></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Nuclear_Celtic_languages" title="Nuclear Celtic languages">Nuclear Celtic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i><a href="Continental_Celtic_languages" title="Continental Celtic languages">Continental Celtic</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Insular_Celtic_languages" title="Insular Celtic languages">Insular Celtic</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i><a href="East_Germanic_languages" title="East Germanic languages">East Germanic</a></i></li>

<li><a href="North_Germanic_languages" title="North Germanic languages">North Germanic</a></li>

<li><a href="West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West Germanic</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Hellenic_languages" title="Hellenic languages">Hellenic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i><a href="Ancient_Macedonian_language" title="Ancient Macedonian language">Ancient Macedonian</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Indo-Iranian_languages" title="Indo-Iranian languages">Indo-Iranian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan</a></li>

<li><a href="Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian</a></li>

<li><a href="Nuristani_languages" title="Nuristani languages">Nuristani</a></li>

<li><a href="Badeshi" title="Badeshi">Badeshi</a> (unclassified)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Italic_languages" title="Italic languages">Italic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Latino-Faliscan_languages" title="Latino-Faliscan languages">Latino-Faliscan</a>

<ul><li><a href="Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance</a></li></ul></li>

<li><i><a href="Osco-Umbrian_languages" title="Osco-Umbrian languages">Osco-Umbrian</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Siculian" title="Siculian">Siculian</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Ancient_Belgian_language" title="Ancient Belgian language">Belgic</a>?</i></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i><a href="Tocharian_languages" title="Tocharian languages">Tocharian</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i><a href="Tocharian_A" title="Tocharian A">Tocharian A</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Tocharian_B" title="Tocharian B">Tocharian B</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Tocharian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Tocharian language">Tocharian C</a></i></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a></li></ul>

</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Unclassified12" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Unclassified</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i><a href="Dacian_language" title="Dacian language">Dacian</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Dardani#Language" title="Dardani">Dardanian</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Elymian_language" title="Elymian language">Elymian</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Getae" title="Getae">Getaean</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Liburnian_language" title="Liburnian language">Liburnian</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Lusitanian_language" title="Lusitanian language">Lusitanian</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Moesia" title="Moesia">Moesian</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Mysian_language" title="Mysian language">Mysian</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Paeonian_language" title="Paeonian language">Paeonian</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Phrygian_language" title="Phrygian language">Phrygian</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Thracian_language" title="Thracian language">Thracian</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Venetic_language" title="Venetic language">Venetic</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Wusun#Language" title="Wusun">Wusun</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Ligurian_language_(ancient)" title="Ligurian language (ancient)">Ligurian</a>?</i></li>

<li><i><a href="Philistine_language" title="Philistine language">Philistine</a>?</i></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Proto-language" title="Proto-language">Proto-languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i><a href="Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Proto-Albanian_language" title="Proto-Albanian language">Proto-Albanian</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Proto-Anatolian_language" title="Proto-Anatolian language">Proto-Anatolian</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Proto-Armenian_language" title="Proto-Armenian language">Proto-Armenian</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Proto-Balto-Slavic_language" title="Proto-Balto-Slavic language">Proto-Balto-Slavic</a></i>

<ul><li><i><a href="Proto-Baltic_language" title="Proto-Baltic language">Proto-Baltic</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Proto-Slavic_language" title="Proto-Slavic language">Proto-Slavic</a></i></li></ul></li>

<li><i><a href="Proto-Celtic_language" title="Proto-Celtic language">Proto-Celtic</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic</a></i>

<ul><li><i><a href="Proto-Norse_language" title="Proto-Norse language">Proto-Norse</a></i></li></ul></li>

<li><i><a href="Proto-Greek_language" title="Proto-Greek language">Proto-Hellenic</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Proto-Indo-Iranian_language" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian language">Proto-Indo-Iranian</a></i>

<ul><li><i><a href="Proto-Indo-Aryan_language" title="Proto-Indo-Aryan language">Proto-Indo-Aryan</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Proto-Iranian_language" title="Proto-Iranian language">Proto-Iranian</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Proto-Nuristani_language" title="Proto-Nuristani language">Proto-Nuristani</a></i></li></ul></li>

<li><i><a href="Proto-Italic_language" title="Proto-Italic language">Proto-Italic</a></i>

<ul><li><i><a href="Proto-Romance_language" title="Proto-Romance language">Proto-Romance</a></i></li></ul></li>

<li><i><a href="Proto-Tocharian_language" title="Proto-Tocharian language">Proto-Tocharian</a></i></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><i>Italics</i> indicate <a href="Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Mesopotamia186" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Ancient_Mesopotamia186" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Ancient Mesopotamia</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Geography_of_Mesopotamia" title="Geography of Mesopotamia">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Upper_Mesopotamia" title="Upper Mesopotamia">Upper Mesopotamia</a></li>

<li><a href="Lower_Mesopotamia" title="Lower Mesopotamia">Lower Mesopotamia</a></li>

<li><a href="Mesopotamian_Marshes" title="Mesopotamian Marshes">Mesopotamian Marshes</a></li>

<li><a href="Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a></li>

<li><a href="Syrian_Desert" title="Syrian Desert">Syrian Desert</a></li>

<li><a href="Taurus_Mountains" title="Taurus Mountains">Taurus Mountains</a></li>

<li><a href="Tigris%E2%80%93Euphrates_river_system" title="Tigris–Euphrates river system">Tigris–Euphrates river system</a>

<ul><li><a href="Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a></li>

<li><a href="Tigris" title="Tigris">Tigris</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Zagros_Mountains" title="Zagros Mountains">Zagros Mountains</a></li>

<li><a href="Hamrin_Mountains" title="Hamrin Mountains">Hamrin Mountains</a></li>

<li><a href="Sinjar_Mountains" title="Sinjar Mountains">Sinjar Mountains</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a></li>

<li><a href="Adiabene" title="Adiabene">Adiabene</a></li>

<li><a href="Akkad_(city)" title="Akkad (city)">Akkad</a></li>

<li><a href="Armani_(kingdom)" title="Armani (kingdom)">Armani</a></li>

<li><a href="Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a></li>

<li><a href="Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonia</a></li>

<li><a href="Chaldea" title="Chaldea">Chaldea</a></li>

<li><a href="Gutians" title="Gutians">Gutium</a></li>

<li><a href="Hamazi" title="Hamazi">Hamazi</a></li>

<li><a href="Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittites</a></li>

<li><a href="Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassites</a></li>

<li><a href="Medes" title="Medes">Media</a></li>

<li><a href="Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a></li>

<li><a href="Simurrum" title="Simurrum">Simurrum</a></li>

<li><a href="Subartu" title="Subartu">Subartu</a></li>

<li><a href="Suhum" title="Suhum">Suhum</a></li>

<li><a href="Sumer" title="Sumer">Sumer</a></li>

<li><a href="Turukkaeans" title="Turukkaeans">Tukri</a></li>

<li><a href="Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_cities_of_the_ancient_Near_East" title="List of cities of the ancient Near East">Cities</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">(Pre)history</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Prehistory_of_Mesopotamia" title="Prehistory of Mesopotamia">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Acheulean" title="Acheulean">Acheulean</a></li>

<li><a href="Mousterian" title="Mousterian">Mousterian</a></li>

<li><a href="Trialetian" class="mw-redirect" title="Trialetian">Trialetian</a></li>

<li><a href="Zarzian_culture" title="Zarzian culture">Zarzian</a></li>

<li><a href="Natufian_culture" title="Natufian culture">Natufian</a></li>

<li><a href="Nemrik_9" title="Nemrik 9">Nemrik</a></li>

<li><a href="Khiamian" class="mw-redirect" title="Khiamian">Khiamian</a></li>

<li><a href="Pre-Pottery_Neolithic_A" title="Pre-Pottery Neolithic A">Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA)</a></li>

<li><a href="Pre-Pottery_Neolithic_B" title="Pre-Pottery Neolithic B">Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB)</a></li>

<li><a href="Hassuna_culture" title="Hassuna culture">Hassuna</a>/<a href="Samarra_culture" title="Samarra culture">Samarra</a></li>

<li><a href="Halaf_culture" title="Halaf culture">Halaf</a></li>

<li><a href="Ubaid_period" title="Ubaid period">Ubaid</a></li>

<li><a href="Jemdet_Nasr_period" title="Jemdet Nasr period">Jemdet Nasr</a></li>

<li><a href="Kish_civilization" title="Kish civilization">Kish civilization</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="History_of_Mesopotamia" title="History of Mesopotamia">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Early_Dynastic_Period_(Mesopotamia)" title="Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)">Early Dynastic</a></li>

<li><a href="Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian</a></li>

<li><a href="Gutian_rule_in_Mesopotamia" title="Gutian rule in Mesopotamia">Gutians</a></li>

<li><a href="Simurrum" title="Simurrum">Simurrum</a></li>

<li><a href="Isin-Larsa_period" title="Isin-Larsa period">Isin-Larsa</a></li>

<li><a href="First_Babylonian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="First Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian</a></li>

<li><a href="Kassite_dynasty" title="Kassite dynasty">Kassite</a></li>

<li><a href="Middle_Babylonian_period" title="Middle Babylonian period">Middle Babylonian</a></li>

<li><a href="Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian</a></li>

<li><a href="Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian</a></li>

<li><a href="Fall_of_Babylon" title="Fall of Babylon">Fall of Babylon</a></li>

<li><a href="Achaemenid_Assyria" title="Achaemenid Assyria">Achaemenid</a></li>

<li><a href="Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a></li>

<li><a href="Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a></li>

<li><a href="Mesopotamia_(Roman_province)" title="Mesopotamia (Roman province)">Roman</a></li>

<li><a href="Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a></li>

<li><a href="Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim conquest</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Assyriology" title="Assyriology">Languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Akkadian_language" title="Akkadian language">Akkadian</a></li>

<li><a href="Amorite_language" title="Amorite language">Amorite</a></li>

<li><a href="Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a></li>

<li><a href="Eblaite_language" title="Eblaite language">Eblaite</a></li>

<li><a href="Elamite_language" title="Elamite language">Elamite</a></li>

<li><a href="Gutian_language" title="Gutian language">Gutian</a></li>

<li><a href="Hurrian_language" title="Hurrian language">Hurrian</a></li>

<li><a href="Kassite_language" title="Kassite language">Kassite</a></li>

<li><a href="Luwian_language" title="Luwian language">Luwian</a></li>

<li><a href="Median_language" title="Median language">Median</a></li>

<li><a href="Middle_Persian" title="Middle Persian">Middle Persian</a></li>

<li><a href="Old_Persian" title="Old Persian">Old Persian</a></li>

<li><a href="Parthian_language" title="Parthian language">Parthian</a></li>

<li><a href="Proto-Armenian_language" title="Proto-Armenian language">Proto-Armenian</a></li>

<li><a href="Sutean_language" title="Sutean language">Sutean</a></li>

<li><a href="Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian</a></li>

<li><a href="Urartian_language" title="Urartian language">Urartian</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture/society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Agriculture_in_Mesopotamia" title="Agriculture in Mesopotamia">Agriculture</a></li>

<li><a href="Architecture_of_Mesopotamia" title="Architecture of Mesopotamia">Architecture</a></li>

<li><a href="Akitu" title="Akitu">Akitu</a></li>

<li><a href="Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">Cuneiform</a></li>

<li><a href="Babylonian_astronomy" title="Babylonian astronomy">Babylonian astronomy</a></li>

<li><a href="Babylonian_mathematics" title="Babylonian mathematics">Babylonian mathematics</a></li>

<li><a href="Akkadian_literature" title="Akkadian literature">Akkadian literature</a></li>

<li><a href="Economy_of_Sumer" title="Economy of Sumer">Economy of Sumer</a></li>

<li><a href="Warfare_in_Sumer" title="Warfare in Sumer">Warfare in Sumer</a></li>

<li><a href="Military_history_of_the_Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire">Military history of the Neo-Assyrian Empire</a></li>

<li>Sumerian cuisine</li>

<li><a href="Sumerian_literature" title="Sumerian literature">Sumerian literature</a></li>

<li><a href="Music_of_Mesopotamia" title="Music of Mesopotamia">Music</a></li>

<li><a href="Indus-Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus-Mesopotamia relations">Indus-Mesopotamia relations</a></li>

<li><a href="Egypt-Mesopotamia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt-Mesopotamia relations">Egypt-Mesopotamia relations</a></li>

<li><a href="Akkadian_royal_titulary" title="Akkadian royal titulary">Royal titles</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_Mesopotamian_dynasties" title="List of Mesopotamian dynasties">List of rulers</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Archaeology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Archaeological_looting_in_Iraq" title="Archaeological looting in Iraq">Looting</a></li>

<li><a href="Destruction_of_cultural_heritage_by_ISIL" class="mw-redirect" title="Destruction of cultural heritage by ISIL">Destruction by ISIL</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Ancient_Mesopotamian_religion" title="Ancient Mesopotamian religion">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Sumerian_religion" title="Sumerian religion">Sumerian religion</a></li>

<li><a href="Babylonian_religion" title="Babylonian religion">Babylonian religion</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_Mesopotamian_deities" title="List of Mesopotamian deities">Deities</a></li>

<li><a href="Mesopotamian_myths" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesopotamian myths">Mesopotamian myths</a></li>

<li><a href="Mesopotamian_divination" title="Mesopotamian divination">Divination</a></li>

<li><a href="Mesopotamian_prayer" title="Mesopotamian prayer">Prayers</a></li>

<li><a href="Ziggurat" title="Ziggurat">Ziggurat (Temple)</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Assyriology" title="Assyriology">Assyriology</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_Assyriologists" title="List of Assyriologists">Assyriologists</a></li>

<li><a href="Hittitology" title="Hittitology">Hittitology</a></li>

<li><a href="Pennsylvania_Sumerian_Dictionary" title="Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary">Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary</a></li>

<li><a href="Chicago_Assyrian_Dictionary" title="Chicago Assyrian Dictionary">Chicago Assyrian Dictionary</a></li>

<li><a href="Chicago_Hittite_Dictionary" title="Chicago Hittite Dictionary">Chicago Hittite Dictionary</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q35668#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1839" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q35668#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1839" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4120195-4">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Hittite language"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85061276">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Hittite (langue)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11932024z">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Hittite (langue)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11932024z">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00563291">Japan</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="chetitština"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph119165&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000192995&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007563090405171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/concept/05420c2e-d5c2-404a-9157-5dd8173a77dc">Yale LUX</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

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